TREATMENTS AND METHODS FOR IMPROVING BIOFUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF TITANIUM ALLOYS
European Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, Volume 10, Issue 4, 2025
PDF Full Article, DOI: 10.36868/ejmse.2025.10.04.273, pp. 273-290
Published: December 20, 2025
Madalina Simona BALTATU1,*, Corina Ioana MOGA2, Andrei Victor SANDU1,3,4, Florin CIOLACU5, Camilo ZAMORA-LEDEZMA6, Petrica VIZUREANU1,3,*
1 Faculty of Materials Science and Engineering, Iași, Romania, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 73 Prof. Dr. Doc. D. Mangeron Blvd, 70005
2 DFR Systems Srl, Drumul Taberei 46, București
3 Academy of Romanian Scientists, 54 Splaiul Independentei St., Sect. 5, 050094, Bucharest, Romania
4 Romanian Inventors Forum, Str. Sf. P. Movila 3, Iasi, Romania
5 “Cristofor Simionescu” Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Environmental Protection, “Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, 73 Prof. Dr. Doc. D. Mangeron Blvd, 70005
6 Bioengineering & Regenerative Medicine Research Group (Bio-ReM), Escuela de Ingeniería, Arquitectura y Diseño (EIAD), Universidad Alfonso X el Sabio (UAX), Avenida de la Universidad 1, Villanueva de la Cañada, 28691 Madrid, Spain
* Corresponding author: peviz2002@yahoo.com
Abstract
Because of its exceptional combination of mechanical strength, corrosion resistance, and outstanding biocompatibility, titanium and its alloys continue to be essential in the development of cutting-edge biomedical implants. But choosing the right alloy system is not enough to provide maximum clinical performance; coordinated engineering of chemical composition, microstructure, and surface functioning is also necessary. This article offers a comprehensive summary of current developments in the design of non-toxic β-stabilized titanium alloys, thermomechanical processing to regulate microstructural characteristics, and nanoscale surface modification to improve biological responses. Stress shielding effects have been successfully mitigated by new alloy systems based on Nb, Ta, Zr, Mo, and Sn, which have shown notable gains in elastic modulus reduction, phase stability, and biomechanical compatibility. Strength, ductility, fatigue resistance, and changeable stiffness can be improved by precisely altering grain size, α/β phase distribution, and defect structures through microstructural optimization via solution treatment, aging, severe plastic deformation, and hot working. Anodization, acid and alkaline treatment, sol-gel deposition, and chemical vapor deposition are examples of complementary surface engineering techniques that create bioactive, nanostructured surfaces with antimicrobial or anti-inflammatory qualities, enhance corrosion resistance, and speed up osteointegration. A new paradigm in multifunctional titanium biomaterials that combine surface characteristics, microstructure, and composition optimization has emerged, one that may provide mechanical reliability with biological intelligence. This unified strategy will be useful in developing next-gen orthopedic and dental implants that integrate with the body more effectively, last longer, and provide superior clinical outcomes.
Keywords: Titanium alloys; Biofunctional properties; Surface modification; Thermomechanical processing; β-stabilizing elements; Osteointegration; Nanostructured surfaces; Severe plastic deformation; Calcium phosphate coatings; Biomedical implants
References:
[1] Ilman, K. (2020). Preliminary study on the phase transformation of ti-3mo applying solid solution treatment for bone implant application. International Journal of Emerging Trends in Engineering Research, 8(6), 2409–2413. https://doi.org/10.30534/ijeter/2020/33862020
[2] Yu, Z., Wang, G., Qun, X., Dargusch, M., Han, J., & Yu, S. (2009). Development of biomedical near β titanium alloys. Materials Science Forum, 618–619, 303–306. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.618-619.303
[3] Pushp, P., Mabrukar, D., Arati, C. (2022). Classification and applications of titanium and its alloys. Materials Today: Proceedings, 54. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2022.01.008
[4] Ko, Y., Lee, C., Shin, D., & Semiatin, S. (2006). Low-temperature superplasticity of ultra-fine-grained ti-6al-4v processed by equal-channel angular pressing. Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A, 37(2), 381–391. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11661-006-0008-z
[5] Niinomi, M. (2008). Mechanical biocompatibilities of titanium alloys for biomedical applications. Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 1(1), 30–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2007.07.001
[6] Niinomi, M., Hattori, T., Morikawa, K., Kasuga, T., Suzuki, A., Fukui, H., … & Niwa, S. (2002). Development of low rigidity β-type titanium alloy for biomedical applications. Materials Transactions, 43(12), 2970–2977. https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.43.2970
[7] Savin, A., Vizureanu, P., Prevorovsky, Z., Chlada, M., Krofta, J., Baltatu, M.S., Istrate, B., & Steigmann, R. (2018). Noninvasive evaluation of special alloys for prostheses using complementary methods. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 374, 012030.
[8] Эшед, Э., & Shirizly, A. (2025). Characterization of nano-sized features in powder bed additively manufactured ti-6al-4v alloy. Materials, 18(13), 3198. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18133198
[9] Vikas, K., Rao, K., Rahul, R., Reddy, G., & Ramana, V. (2022). Influence of heat treatments on microstructural and mechanical properties of grade 5 titanium friction welds. Engineering Research Express, 4(2), 025053. https://doi.org/10.1088/2631-8695/ac7a0a
[10] Corrêa, D., Kuroda, P., Lourenço, M., Buzalaf, M., Mendoza, M., Archanjo, B., … & Grandini, C. (2018). Microstructure and selected mechanical properties of aged ti-15zr-based alloys for biomedical applications. Materials Science and Engineering C, 91, 762–771. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msec.2018.06.017
[11] Baltatu, M.S., Vizureanu, P., Sandu, A.V., Baltatu, I., Burduhos-Nergis, D.D., & Benchea, M. (2023). Prospects on titanium biomaterials. European Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 8(4), 191–200.
[12] Liu, X., Chu, P., & Ding, C. (2004). Surface modification of titanium, titanium alloys, and related materials for biomedical applications. Materials Science and Engineering R Reports, 47(3-4), 49–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mser.2004.11.001
[13] Li, C., Li, M., Li, H., Chen, J., & Xiao, H. (2020). Influence of solution treatment on microstructural evolution and mechanical properties of a new titanium alloy. Kovove Materialy-Metallic Materials, 58(1), 41–48. https://doi.org/10.4149/km_2020_1_41
[14] Zhao, Z., Li, L., Bai, P., Yang, J., Wu, L., Li, J., … & Qu, H. (2018). The heat treatment influence on the microstructure and hardness of tc4 titanium alloy manufactured via selective laser melting. Materials, 11(8), 1318. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma11081318
[15] Cojocaru, V., Răducanu, D., Cincă, I., Vasilescu, E., Drob, P., Vasilescu, C., … & Drob, S. (2012). Improvement of the corrosion resistance and structural and mechanical properties of a titanium base alloy by thermo-mechanical processing. Materials and Corrosion, 64(6), 500–508. https://doi.org/10.1002/maco.201206577
[16] Yang, X., Wu, L., Li, C., Li, S., Hou, W., Hao, Y., … & Li, L. (2024). Synergistic amelioration of osseointegration and osteoimmunomodulation with a microarc oxidation-treated three-dimensionally printed ti-24nb-4zr-8sn scaffold. ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 16(3), 3171–3186. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.3c16459
[17] Pérez, D., Jorge, A., Asato, G., Leprêtre, J., Roche, V., Bolfarini, C., … & Filho, W. (2019). Surface anodization of the biphasic ti13nb13zr biocompatible alloy: influence of phases on the formation of tio₂ nanostructures. Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 796, 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2019.04.167
[18] Kuroda, P., Quadros, F., Araújo, R., Afonso, C., & Grandini, C. (2019). Effect of thermomechanical treatments on the phases, microstructure, microhardness and young’s modulus of ti-25ta-zr alloys. Materials, 12(19), 3210. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12193210
[19] Han, C., & Lee, D. (2024). Effect of oxygen on static recrystallization behaviors of biomedical ti-nb-zr alloys. Metals, 14(3), 333. https://doi.org/10.3390/met14030333
[20] Zhou, Y., Niinomi, M., & Akahori, T. (2004). Effects of ta content on young’s modulus and tensile properties of binary ti–ta alloys for biomedical applications. Materials Science and Engineering A, 371(1-2), 283–290. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2003.12.011
[21] Neto, J., Celles, C., Andrade, C., Afonso, C., Nagay, B., & Barão, V. (2024). Recent advances and prospects in β-type titanium alloys for dental implants applications. ACS Biomaterials Science & Engineering, 10(10), 6029–6060. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsbiomaterials.4c00963
[22] Wang, L., Xie, L., Lv, Y., Zhang, L., Chen, L., Meng, Q., … & Lü, W. (2017). Microstructure evolution and superelastic behavior in ti-35nb-2ta-3zr alloy processed by friction stir processing. Acta Materialia, 131, 499–510. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.actamat.2017.03.079
[23] Bălţatu, M.S., Vizureanu, P., Geantă, V., Nejneru, C., Țugui, C.A., & Focşăneanu, S.C. (2017). Obtaining and mechanical properties of Ti-Mo-Zr-Ta alloys. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 209, 012019.
[24] M.S. Baltatu, P. Vizureanu, A.V. Sandu, C. Solcan, L.D. Hritcu, M.C. Spataru, Research Progress of Titanium-Based Alloys for Medical Devices, Biomedicines, 11, 2023, 2997.
[25] I. Baltatu, L. Benea, P. Vizureanu, M.S. Baltatu, M. Nabialek, Biofunctionalization of titanium alloys: Methods and applications, European Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 8(4), 2023, 218–229. Retrieved from https://ejmse.ro/articles/08_04_05_EJMSE-23-218.pdf
[26] I. Baltatu, P. Vizureanu, M.S. Baltatu, D. Achitei, M. Nabialek, Structural analysis of Ti–Mo alloys, European Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 4(1), 2019, 63–70. Retrieved from https://ejmse.ro/articles/EJMSE_04_01_06_Baltatu.pdf[27] So, K., Kaneuji, A., Matsumoto, T., Matsuda, S., & Akiyama, H., Is the bone-bonding ability of a cementless total hip prosthesis enhanced by alkaline and heat treatments?, Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research, 471(12), 2013, 3847–3855. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11999-013-2945-3
[28] Smirnov, A., Beltrán, J., Rodriguez‐Suarez, T., Pecharromán, C., Muñoz, M., Moya, J., & Bartolomé, J., Unprecedented simultaneous enhancement in damage tolerance and fatigue resistance of zirconia/ta composites, Scientific Reports, 7(1), 2017. https://doi.org/10.1038/srep44922
[29] Ureña, J., Tabares, E., Tsipas, S., Jiménez-Morales, A., & Gordo, E., Dry sliding wear behaviour of β-type ti-nb and ti-mo surfaces designed by diffusion treatments for biomedical applications, Journal of the Mechanical Behavior of Biomedical Materials, 91, 2019, 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmbbm.2018.12.029
[30] Xin, X., Yu, H., Lv, H., Ren, J., Yu, W., Ding, X., & Zhao, J., Developing a new beta‐type of ti–si/sn alloys for targeted orthopedic therapeutics: assessments of biological characteristics, Advanced Engineering Materials, 23(2), 2020. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202000430
[31] Storti, E., Neumann, M., Zienert, T., Hubálková, J., & Aneziris, C., Full and hollow metal–ceramic beads based on tantalum and alumina produced by alginate gelation, Advanced Engineering Materials, 24(8), 2022. https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.202200381
[32] Braïlovski, V., Прокошкин, С., Gauthier, M., Inaekyan, К., & Dubinskiy, S., Mechanical properties of porous metastable beta ti–nb–zr alloys for biomedical applications, Journal of Alloys and Compounds, 577, 2013, S413–S417. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jallcom.2011.12.157
[33] Li, B., Microstructural characteristics of surface composite on titanium alloy fabricated via a novel method of friction-stir nitriding, —, 2016. https://doi.org/10.2991/ifeea-15.2016.79
[34] Wang, L., Zhou, W., Yu, Z., Yu, S., Zhou, L., Cao, Y., & Wang, G., An in vitro evaluation of the hierarchical micro/nanoporous structure of a ti3zr2sn3mo25nb alloy after surface dealloying, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 13(13), 2021, 15017–15030. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.1c02140
[35] Sadhukhan, P., Banerjee, S., Kumar, H., Maji, B., & Ghosh, M., A study on ti‐nb alloys with different composition for orthopedic application using md simulations and experiments, Advanced Theory and Simulations, 8(10), 2025. https://doi.org/10.1002/adts.202500137
[36] Liu, J., Ruan, J., Yin, J., Ou, P., & Yang, H., Fabrication of multilevel porous structure networks on nb-ta-ti alloy scaffolds and the effects of surface characteristics on behaviors of mc3t3-e1 cells, Biomedical Materials, 17(6), 2022, 065025. https://doi.org/10.1088/1748-605x/ac9ffd
[37] Takahashi, E., Sakurai, T., Watanabe, S., Masahashi, N., & Hanada, S., Effect of heat treatment and sn content on superelasticity in biocompatible tinbsn alloys, Materials Transactions, 43(12), 2002, 2978–2983. https://doi.org/10.2320/matertrans.43.2978
[38] Takahashi, K., Shiraishi, N., Ishiko-Uzuka, R., Anada, T., Suzuki, O., Masumoto, H., & Sasaki, K., Biomechanical evaluation of ti-nb-sn alloy implants with a low young’s modulus, International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 16(3), 2015, 5779–5788. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms16035779
[39] Jung, T., Abumiya, T., Masahashi, N., Kim, M., & Hanada, S., Fabrication of a high performance ti alloy implant for an artificial hip joint, Materials Science Forum, 620–622, 2009, 591–594. https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/msf.620-622.591
[40] Tanaka, H., Mori, Y., Noro, A., Kogure, A., Kamimura, M., Yamada, N., & Itoi, E., Apatite formation and biocompatibility of a low young’s modulus ti-nb-sn alloy treated with anodic oxidation and hot water, PLOS ONE, 11(2), 2016, e0150081. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0150081
[41] Yavari, S., Stok, J., Chai, Y., Wauthlé, R., Birgani, Z., Habibović, P., & Zadpoor, A., Bone regeneration performance of surface-treated porous titanium, Biomaterials, 35(24), 2014, 6172–6181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2014.04.054
[42] Takada, M., Nakajima, A., Kuroda, S., Horiuchi, S., Shimizu, N., & Tanaka, E., In vitro evaluation of frictional force of a novel elastic bendable orthodontic wire, The Angle Orthodontist, 88(5), 2018, 602–610. https://doi.org/10.2319/111417-779.1
[43] M. Sarraf, E.R. Ghomi, S. Alipour, S. Ramakrishna, N.L. Suikman, A state-of-the-art review of the fabrication and characteristics of titanium and its alloys for biomedical applications, Bio-Design and Manufacturing, 5, 2021, 371–395. https://doi.org/10.1007/s42242-021-00170-3
[44] J. Willis, S. Li, S.J. Crean, F.N. Barrak, Is titanium alloy Ti‐6Al‐4V cytotoxic to gingival fibroblasts—A systematic review, Clinical and Experimental Dental Research, 7(6), 2021, 1037–1044. https://doi.org/10.1002/cre2.444
[45] M. Zhong, Y. Lin, Area effect during the fracture process of high-Niobium-Titanium-Aluminum alloys under continuous tension loading-unloading, Frontiers in Materials, 2023. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmats.2023.1214872
[46] R.R. Boyer, R.D. Briggs, The Use of β Titanium Alloys in the Aerospace Industry, Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 14, 2005, 681–685.
[47] C. Veiga, J.P. Davim, A. Loureiro, Properties and applications of titanium alloys: A brief review, Reviews on Advanced Materials Science, 32, 2012, 133–148.
[48] V.O. Semin, A.P. Chernova, A.V. Erkovich, Electrochemical Properties and Structure of the TiNi Alloy Surface Layers Implanted with Titanium and Niobium Ions, Inorganic Materials: Applied Research, 15, 2024, 638–648. https://doi.org/10.1134/S2075113324700060
[49] A. Kazek-Kęsik, I. Kalemba-Rec, W. Simka, Anodization of a Medical-Grade Ti-6Al-7Nb Alloy in a Ca(H2PO2)2-Hydroxyapatite Suspension, Materials, 12, 2019, 3002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12183002
[50] Morales, L., Sanchez, L.M., Electrochemical Deposition Techniques for Titanium Alloy Dental Implants, Electrochimica Acta, 394, 2022, 138801.
[51] Nguyen, P.T., Le, Q.V., Recent Advances in Hydroxyapatite Coatings for Titanium-Based Implants, Coatings, 13(1), 2023, 88.
[52] Davis, E.J., Thompson, R.W., Novel Approaches in Laser Surface Modification of Titanium Alloys for Prosthetic Applications, Journal of Laser Applications, 33, 2021, 022060.
[53] S. Spriano, S. Yamaguchi, F. Baino, S. Ferraris, A critical review of multifunctional titanium surfaces: New frontiers for improving osseointegration and host response, avoiding bacteria contamination, Acta Biomaterialia, 79, 2018, 1–22.
[54] Jaafar, A., Schimpf, C., Mandel, M., et al., Sol–gel Derived Hydroxyapatite Coating on Titanium Implants: Optimization of Sol–Gel Process and Engineering the Interface, Journal of Materials Research, 37, 2022, 2558–2570. https://doi.org/10.1557/s43578-022-00550-0
[55] Garcia, M., Rodriguez, D., Sol-Gel Coating for Biomedical Titanium Alloys: A review, Coatings, 11(2), 2021, 185.
[56] Smith, A., Johnson, K.B., Plasma Spraying Techniques in Biomedical Titanium Implants: A Review, Journal of Biomedical Materials Research Part B: Applied Biomaterials, 110(3), 2022, 547–561.
[57] A. Kazek-Kęsik, I. Kalemba-Rec, W. Simka, Anodization of a Medical-Grade Ti-6Al-7Nb Alloy in a Ca(H2PO2)2-Hydroxyapatite Suspension, Materials, 12, 2019, 3002. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma12183002
[58] Smith, T., The Effect of Plasma-Sprayed Coatings on the Fatigue of Titanium Alloy Implants, JOM, 46, 1994, 54–56. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03222560
[59] Singh, H., Kumar, R., Prakash, C., Singh, S., HA-Based Coating by Plasma Spray Techniques on Titanium Alloy for Orthopedic Applications, Materials Today: Proceedings, 50(5), 2022, 612–628. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matpr.2021.03.165
[60] Baker, T.N., Laser Surface Modification of Titanium Alloys, In Surface Engineering of Light Alloys, Woodhead Publishing, 2010, 398–443. https://doi.org/10.1533/9781845699451.2.398
[61] Vo, P., Goldbaum, D., Wong, W., Irissou, E., Legoux, J.G., Chromik, R.R., Yue, S., Cold-Spray Processing of Titanium and Titanium Alloys, In Titanium Powder Metallurgy, Butterworth-Heinemann, 2015, 405–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-800054-0.00022-8
[62] Li, G., Cao, H., Zhang, W., Ding, X., Yang, G., Qiao, Y., & Jiang, X., Enhanced osseointegration of hierarchical micro/nanotopographic titanium fabricated by microarc oxidation and electrochemical treatment, ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces, 8(6), 2016, 3840–3852. https://doi.org/10.1021/acsami.5b10633
[63] C. Jiménez-Marcos, J.C. Mirza-Rosca, M.S. Baltatu, P. Vizureanu, Preliminary studies of new heat-treated titanium alloys for use in medical equipment, Results in Engineering, 25, 2025, 104477. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rineng.2025.104477
[64] Kuroda, P., Grandini, C., Afonso, C., Surface characterization of new β ti-25ta-zr-nb alloys modified by micro-arc oxidation, Materials, 16(6), 2023, 2352. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16062352
[65] Pu, J., Dai, Y., Li, K., Chen, L., Study on the preparation and corrosion–wear properties of tin/sn coatings on the ti-25nb-3zr-2sn-3mo titanium alloy, Materials, 18(5), 2025, 1160. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma18051160
[66] C. Jiménez-Marcos, J.C. Mirza-Rosca, M.S. Baltatu, P. Vizureanu, Two novel Ti–Mo–Ta–Zr alloys for medical devices: Their microstructure, corrosion resistance and microhardness characteristics, Materials Chemistry and Physics, 334, 2025, 130511. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.matchemphys.2025.130511
[67] M.M. Iancu, C.I. Tatia, A. Robu, M.L. Vasilescu, I. Antoniac, A.M. Fratila, Current trends on materials and methods for teeth whitening, European Journal of Materials Science and Engineering, 9(4), 2024, 323–336. https://doi.org/10.36868/ejmse.2024.09.04.323
[68] K.K. Wong, H.C. Hsu, S.C. Wu, W.F. Ho, A Review: Design from Beta Titanium Alloys to Medium-Entropy Alloys for Biomedical Applications, Materials, 16(21), 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma16217046